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各国陆续在星间激光通信领域成功开展了多项不同轨道的在轨技术验证,并进入规模化应用阶段。调研发现目前在轨技术验证除了采用定制化的激光终端,以满足各项任务的具体需求,为了支撑下一代太空体系大规模部署激光通信载荷的发展目标,各国的商业化航天科技公司如TESAT、Mynaric、Hyperion Tech、Thales Alenia Space、NICT等开始推出更高速率、更小质量和体积及更低功耗的激光终端产品,这些终端产品可以适应同类多任务的普适需求。根据不同轨道高度任务需求不同,按照发射时间顺序总结了自2015年起至今中高轨和低轨卫星激光通信成果的发展现状与未来计划,如表1所示。其中,链路形式表明了卫星所在的轨道高度。根据星地高度以及与赤道面的夹角不同,卫星轨道可分为五种类别:低地球轨道(Low Earth Orbit, LEO)、中地球轨道(Middle Earth Orbit, MEO)、地球同步轨道(Geosynchronous Orbit, GEO)、地球同步转移轨道(Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit, GTO)、太阳同步轨道(Sun-Synchronous Orbit, SSO)[19],表中用缩写表示。
表 1 卫星激光通信技术验证现状和计划
Table 1. Current status and plan of laser communication technology validation for medium and high orbit satellites
Orbits Region/
CountryName Launch
timeResearch
instituteLink
formatWavelength/
nmCommunication rate/
bpsModulation mode Middle/High-orbit
laser communicationEurope EDRS-A 2016 ESA GEO-GEO
GEO-LEO1064 1.8 G BPSK
(Duplex)China Shijian-13 2017 China Academy of Space Technology GEO-GND - 5 G IM/DD
(Duplex)Europe CONDOR Mk3 2017 Mynaric 7500 km 1553/1536 10-100 G - Europe EDRS-C 2019 ESA GEO-GEO 1064 1.8 G BPSK
(Duplex)China Shijian-20 2019 China Academy of
Space TechnologyGEO-GND - 10 G QPSK Japan JDRS 2020 JAXA/NICT GEO-LEO 1540/1560 1.8 G/50 M RZ-DPSK
(Downlink)
IM/DD
(Uplink)Europe SmartLCT 2020 TESAT 45000 km 1064 1.8 G - Europe SOT-150 2020 MOSTCOM 50000 km - 1.25 G - Europe LCT135 2021 TESAT 80000 km 1064 1.8 G BPSK Japan HICALI 2021 NICT GEO-GND 1550 1 G DPSK USA LCRD 2021 NASA, MIT GEO-GND
ISS-GEO1550 GEO-GND:
2.88 G/622 M
ISS-GEO:1.244 G/51 MGEO-GND:
DPSK/ PPM
(Duplex)
ISS-GEO:
DPSKEurope EDRS-D 2025 ESA GEO-GEO 1064/1550 3.6-10 G BPSK
(Duplex)Europe HydRON 2025 ESA GEO-LEO
GEO-GND1064/1550 100 G - China Mozi 2016 Shanghai Institute of Optics
and Fine Mechanics, CASLEO-GND - 20 M/5.12 G PPM
(Uplink)
DPSK
(Downlink)China Tiangong-2 2016 China Academy of
Space TechnologyLEO-GND - 1.6 G IM/DD Europe OPTEL-μ 2015 Thales Alenia Space LEO-GND 1550 2 G OOK/PPM Low-orbit laser
communicationUSA OCSD 2015/2017 NASA/US Aerospace LEO-GND 1064 10 k
(Uplink)
5-200 M
(Downlink)OOK/PPM USA CLICK-A 2018 NASA/MIT LEO-GND 1537/1563 20 M PPM
(Downlink)Japan VSOTA 2018 NICT LEO-GND 980/1550 1 k-1 M
(Adjustable)OOK Europe TOSIRIS 2019 TESAT LEO-GND 1550 10/5/2.5/1.25 G
(Downlink, adjustable)
1 M
(Uplink)IM/DD China Xingyun-2 2020 Aerospace Xingyun
Technology Co., Ltd.LEO-LEO
/LEO-GND- 100 M - Europe OSIRSv3/4 2020 DLR LEO-GND 1550 10 G IM/DD
(Downlink)Europe SOT-90 2020 MOSTCOM 5000 km - 10 G - Europe ConLCT 2021 TESAT 8000 km - 10 G
(Duplex)- Europe CubeLCT 2021 TESAT LEO-GND - 100 M
(Downlink)
1 M
(Uplink)IM/DD Europe CubeCat 2021 AAC Clyde Space LEO-GND - 100 M/300 M/1 G
(Downlink, adjustable)
/200 k
(Uplink)- USA TBIRD 2021 NASA/MIT LEO-GND 1550 200 G
(Downlink)
5 kPPM
(Uplink)USA CLICK-B/C 2022 NASA/MIT LEO-LEO/
LEO-GND1537
/1563>20 M PPM USA O2 O 2022 NASA LEO-LEO/
LEO-GND1550 80-250 M
(Downlink)
20 M
(Forward)PPM USA DSOC 2022 NASA LEO-LEO/
LEO-GND1550 - - -
根据表1,按代表性地区归纳出欧洲、美国、日本、中国的典型技术验证计划,具体分析其技术细节和发展历程,以进一步总结国内外卫星通信发展现状和趋势。
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欧洲数据中继系统EDRS基于GEO卫星平台建立的卫星中继平台,搭载了激光和Ka两种模式的通信载荷,通过该终端载荷连接低轨到高轨和高轨到地面的通信,可以为低轨卫星用户、航空用户、无人机用户和地面终端设备提供中继服务。其通信距离为45000 km,激光发射功率为5 W,通信速率为1.8 Gbps,通信制式为BPSK,激光波长为1064 nm,并采用双向通信[7]。
2016年6月,EDRS-A采用了星间激光通信,信息速率为600 Mb/s,每天为40颗低高轨卫星提供中继服务[12]。2019年8月,EDRS-C成功发射到地球静止轨道运行,其激光星间链路的实现终端架设于SmallGEO开发的平台上[20-21]。预计于2025年补充的第三颗卫星EDRS-D的有效载荷将由三个下一代激光通信终端组成,以允许EDRS-D与多颗卫星同时通信。它将包含三组激光终端,预计实现高达80000 km的传输距离,兼容1064 nm和1550 nm波长,可将亚太地区数据传到欧洲以实现全球数据中继服务[5, 22]。德国宇航中心(Deutsche Forschungsanstalt fur Luftund Raumfahrt, DLR) 开发了针对小型卫星进行优化的实验性光学终端和系统C计划。OSIRIS 的开发始于2016年和2017年发射的卫星OSIRISv1和BiROS (OSIRISv2)卫星上的两项科学任务,2018年第四季度后续发射了OSIRIS4 Cubesat,以及于2019年安装在国际空间站上的空中客车DS Bartolomeo平台上的OSIRISv3。第四代OSIRIS-4目前正在开发小型化版本,它的尺寸小于10 cm×10 cm×3 cm,加上运行期间仅8 W的低功耗,提供了几乎可以在任何CubeSat卫星上进行搭载的能力[23-24]。
为了解决卫星通信系统中大量引入光学/光子技术的系统层面问题,欧洲航天局(European Space Agency, ESA)准备了一项创新项目提案,即高吞吐量光网络HydRON。在HydRON中,通过将卫星有效载荷分为网络部分和应用部分,相当于地面光纤网络的骨干部分和接入部分,结合新型光学技术、新型光电子设备和高效网络的概念,设想目标光纤互连达到Tbps,实现“全光负载”,为真正的空间光纤网络提供“桥梁”[25]。
德国的TESAT公司推出了一系列激光终端可以适应多任务需求。对于近地轨道任务,TESAT推出了SmartLCT终端,它可以部署在更小、更轻的卫星上,从而节省大量的质量和空间。SmartLCT的数据传输距离长达45 000 km,同时可提供1.8 Gbps的高速数据传输,仅重约30 kg,具备安全、快速且完全无故障的性能特点。在小卫星领域,TESAT的激光产品系列提供小质量的TOSIRIS和CubeLCT。它们分别以10 Gbps或100 Mbps的速度传输对地数据,其中TOSIRIS仅重8 kg,调制方式为IM/DD且下行速率可调,而边缘长度仅为10 cm的CubeLCT仅重0.397 kg。通过激光终端构建地球数据骨干网,TESAT可以实现近乎实时的全球数据传输[26]。
德国的Mynaric公司推出的CONDOR Mk3激光终端可提供在7500 km距离上达到10 Gbps的通信速率。该终端采用1553 nm/1536 nm波长激光,发射功率为2 W,设计寿命7年。相比于CONDOR Mk2的5000 km@1.25 Gbps的通信能力有进一步的提高。
类似地,瑞典的AAC Clyde Space公司推出的CubeCat终端是空地通信终端,适用于立方星,其可以实现1 Gbps下行速率和200 Kbps上行速率。且该终端也属于轻量级终端,功耗小于15 W,质量小于1.33 kg,体积仅为1 U×1 U×1 U (1 U=10 cm),内存为64 GB[27]。
Thales Alenia Space公司推出的OPTEL-μ[28]总体思路是建立一个强大的直接探测激光通信系统,用于微小卫星从近地轨道到地面通信。该终端由三个主要单元组成:光学头、电子单元和激光单元,通信速率为2 Gbps。该系统基于1550 nm波长技术,将由一个星载空间终端和多个光学地面终端构成,以较低的星载体积、功率和质量提供较高的每日下行链路容量。
俄罗斯的MOSTCOM公司推出的SOT-90/150两款终端用于最远50 000 km的高速通信,该设备既可用于星间通信,也可用于天地通信。它们采用统一的光收发路径和业务信息交换协议,适用于多种应用场景。该设备支持半球形视区及稳定的双向通讯,并考虑引入量子密钥分发和视频监控系统,以增加设备功能的多样性[29]。
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激光通信中继演示计划LCRD是美国国家航空航天局(National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA)进行的太空激光通信演示验证项目之一,通过该项目可以建立下一代空间跟踪与空间激光通信中继卫星的重要依据[30]。ILLUMA-T终端是NASA为LCRD计划预计在2022年集成的卫星激光终端,以建立高低轨卫星之间的双向通信链路,实现多层次空间组网。该终端搭载了光子集成技术,通过采用光子元器件代替传统电子元器件,从而进一步使得激光通信终端从质量、体积、功耗几个方面实现轻量化,提高可靠性[31]。
在此之前,美国的Optical Communication and Sensor Demonstration (OCSD)卫星验证了微小卫星可以通过激光星间链路实现高速率星地通信,打破了人们以前对激光星间通信在体积和质量上的限制。OCSD-A星于2015年10月发射,OCSD-B/C 星则于两年后即2017年11月发射,分别验证了卫星对地面空间站可以通过激光星间链路实现较高的通信速率[32]。类似地,麻省理工学院、佛罗里达大学和美国航空航天局埃姆斯研究中心联合研制的立方卫星激光红外连接CLICK系统也用于验证星间、星地激光通信。CLICK系统可以展示低SWaP激光终端,能够进行全双工高数据速率下行和星间连接,以提高精确测距和时间同步。CLICK-A有效载荷包括一个激光发射器与精确指向PAT系统,目前已完成装配测试,并已交付航天器总体总装。预计于2022年中旬发射的CLICK-B/C继承了CLICK-A任务,且有效载荷增加了新元素,包括进行通信所需的信标光和探测器系统。CLICK-B/C任务由两颗相同的立方星组成,采用一箭双星发射,用以演示全双工互联,通信速率大于20 Mbps,该系统还具有0.5 m的测距能力与200 ps的时间同步能力[30]。2021年下半年,Terabye Infrared Delivery (TBIRD)项目[33]将演示全新的仅用体积1.8 U×1 U×1 U和质量小于2.25 kg的 200 Gbps下行链路。
后续NASA计划推进更多的激光星间链路项目,其中,Orion Artemis II Optical Communications System (O2O)计划使用激光通信为月球轨道上的猎户座航天器提供双向光通信能力,以完成实时的4 k视频传输。为了实现这一目标,猎户座飞船上的调制解调器将数据转换成光信号,从月球表面传送到地球上的接收器,相同设备也将能够接收来自地球的光信号并将其转换为数据供航天器分析[20],这将是人类探索任务第一次将光通信用于其高带宽链路。NASA预计于2022年推进另一个深空光通信DSOC飞行演示,该系统将提供一个可供飞行的深空光学平台组件和地面数据系统,由现有地面资产的地面激光接收器和发射器组成[34]。空间和地面之间的通信将在近红外区域使用先进的激光器,在寻求在不增加质量、体积或功率的情况下,将通信性能提高10~100倍[35]。
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JDRS卫星由日本宇宙航空研究开发机构(Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, JAXA)和日本政府联合开发,内阁卫星情报中心拥有并运营这颗卫星,JAXA负责光学数据中继功能。这颗卫星将在地球上空35 400 km的地球静止轨道上运行,属于高轨卫星,负责在日本卫星和地面站之间更快地传递数据,尤其适用于在卫星无法清楚地看到地面站时促进数据的传输[36]。其中,JDRS-1是日本的数据中继卫星,具有军事和民用双重任务,取代了2002年发射并运行到2017年8月的“Kodama”数据中继测试卫星 DRTS。它使用红外光束以高达1.8 Gbps的速率在航天器之间传输数据,由两个激光终端组成。LUCAS有效载荷允许JDRS-1以比S波段和Ka波段DRTS快七倍的速度传输数据[14]。
日本国家信息和通信技术研究所NICT推出了适用于不同任务的多款终端。小型卫星光通信终端是Small Optical TrAnsponder (SOTA),总重6 kg,目前部署在一颗50 kg级的空间光通信研究先进技术卫星SOCRATES上。目前使用SOTA的光通信实验主要在东京小金井地球站进行,包含低密度发生器矩阵(Low Density Generator Matrix, LDGM)码的图像传输和验证测试以及量子卫星通信演示等实验,验证了SOCRATES借助SOTA可以实现与地面站之间的光子级信息交换[37]。
超小型光转发器VSOTA终端是由NICT开发的紧凑型双波段(980 nm/1550 nm)轻型激光信号发射器,搭载于快速国际科学实验卫星RISESAT上。RISESAT卫星是东北大学空间机器人实验室SRL目前正在开发的50 kg级地球观测微型卫星,它已被选为日本宇宙航空研究开发机构JAXA“创新卫星技术示范计划”的一部分。借助VSOTA的支撑,RISESAT可以演示LEO对地单向激光通信[38]。
ETS-IX 搭载的HICALI终端包含光发送器、接收器、放大器、数据转换模组、通信设备连接模组、望远镜以及地面目标定位的粗略捕获和精细跟踪机制等模块。HICALI使用波长为1550 nm的近红外激光,该波长广泛用于地面上的光纤通信,因此更适合将在地面光通信网络中使用的装置和系统迁移到空间光通信中[39]。
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我国空间激光通信技术的研究工作开始于20世纪90年代,主要研究卫星激光通信整机研制,高精度光学天线和跟瞄系统优化,激光器、光放大器和探测器等核心器件服务质量提高和模块化定制等技术难点。
作为国内第一次星地激光通信在轨技术试验,“海洋二号”卫星于2011年成功入轨。该卫星的激光终端由哈尔滨工业大学研发,通过非相干通信,可以实现2 000 km星地通信距离,最高通信速率可达504 Mbps[40]。
在此之后,“墨子号”量子卫星于2016年成功发射,该卫星的激光终端由中国科学院上海光学精密机械研究所等单位联合研发,通过相干调制方式实现了激光通信,其中,下行相干调制体制采用DPSK,而上行采用PPM,实现了5.12 Gbps的通信速率,能够支持具备高维图像和视频信息的加密传输[41]。
2016年,“天宫二号”与新疆南山地面站成功实现了激光通信实验,其激光终端的数据下行速率为1.6 Gbps,该终端的通信体制为IM/DD。该载荷也首次实现了白昼激光通信,其载荷跟踪能力在白昼时与夜晚情况接近[18]。
2017年,“实践十三号”卫星发射成功。该卫星的激光终端同样由哈尔滨工业大学研发。该技术验证借助IM/DD的通讯体制,实现了全球第一次同步轨道卫星与地面的双向高速激光通信,通信速率最高可达5 Gbps,通信距离最高可以支持45 000 km,刷新了当时国际高轨星地激光最高通信数据率[42]。
2019年,“实践二十号”卫星于海南文昌基地发射成功,该卫星搭载的激光终端是由中国空间技术研究研发,采用相干调制方式。2020年,该卫星与丽江地面站成功建立了基于QPSK调制体制的激光通信链路,实现从卫星到地面站最高10 Gbps的下行传输速率,其他关键指标也已经对齐国际先进标准[13]。
“行云”系列卫星搭载了由LaserFleet公司开发的激光通信载荷,并于2020年发射成功,是我国第一次进行低轨卫星星间激光链路技术试验[43]。该激光通信载荷的通信距离大于3000 km,通信速率可以达到100 Mbps。
根据上述调研可以看出,2015~2021年期间,国际上开始对激光星间链路进行了大规模部署研究,通过推动大量项目的实践和验证,不断探索不同轨道和不同任务需求下激光星间链路的潜力,多个项目的在轨良好运行也验证了卫星激光通信的优势。同时,借助一些商业公司的低成本、高效率的激光终端研制能力和大规模载荷量产能力,可以满足未来大型星座对激光载荷的大规模部署需求。因此,激光星间链路的大力发展成为可能,对构建新一代全球卫星系统具有重要意义。
Review on laser intersatellite link: Current status, trends, and prospects
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摘要: 由于激光通信在空间传输中波长短且方向性强,已成为下一代卫星通信与导航的重要手段。激光星间链路的高速率、高带宽、高安全性等特点,可以提供高质量卫星空间通信,同时其还可以提高星间测距的精度,因此,构建激光星间链路成为下一代卫星网络的研究重点之一。文中首先从技术层面介绍激光星间链路的基本组成,主要介绍了卫星激光建链模式、卫星激光信号调制模式及卫星激光载波波长三个重要技术点。从技术到现象,根据不同轨道高度和不同的任务需求,按照发射时间顺序综合调研并总结了近年来国内外典型中高轨和低轨卫星激光通信成果的发展现状与未来计划。通过调研,进一步从宏观角度分析出卫星激光通信发展标准化、兼容化、网络化和商业化四个趋势,并从微观角度总结了卫星激光终端弹性化和模块化的发展方向。最后,除了作为通讯手段,展望了星间激光链路用于卫星激光测距的良好前景。通过对激光星间链路的现状、趋势和展望的综合分析,旨在为未来激光星间链路的设计与优化提供一定的借鉴和参考,并为我国未来星间激光通信和测距技术的发展及研究提供方向参考。Abstract:
Significance The high directionality and short wavelength of laser transmission in space make it a promising direction for the next generation of satellite laser communication. The laser intersatellite communication can achieve high quality-of-service satellite communication with high transmission speed, wide bandwidth, and high security, which can even improve the precision of satellite ranging in space. The establishment of a satellite backbone network with laser intersatellite links can achieve global management and control of satellites, greatly improve its independence from the ground system, and expand the communication capacity. Due to its advantages in improving the survivability, autonomy, mobility and flexibility of satellite networks, the domestic "Star Network", "Hongyan", "Hongyun", "Xingyun" and "Space-Earth Integration" constellations and foreign "Kuiper", "Telesat" and "Starlink" networks have integrated laser intersatellite links as one of its core transmission link methods, laser communication terminals also become one of the standard spacecraft payloads. It is foreseeable that intersatellite communication will continue to develop and transform from the radio wave era to the laser era, which makes the survey on laser intersatellite links meaningful. Progress This paper first introduces the technical fundaments, including the link establishment modes, link modulation modes, and wavelengths. The intersatellite laser link establishment mainly relies on three steps of pointing, acquiring, and tracking, comprehensively called PAT system. The link modulation modes include non-coherent and coherent communications. Compared with the non-coherent system, the coherent system has the advantages of high spectral efficiency. For medium and high-orbit satellites that need to carry more complex and sophisticated communication tasks, the laser intersatellite link is mostly modulated by the coherent communication system. Conversely, low-orbit satellite laser communication and deep space exploration projects mainly use non-coherent modulation mode. To reduce the impact of the solar background and solar scattering, the current laser communication mainly considers the selection in the range of 500 nm to 2 000 nm. Since ground industrial-grade laser components mostly use 1 550 nm wavelength laser as the standard preparation, the communication technology can be migrated to the satellite network at a relatively low cost. With the development of technology, the communication systems of various countries are developing in a more compatible direction, that is, compatible with both 1 064 nm and 1 550 nm wavelengths. Countries have successfully carried out a number of on-orbit technology verifications in the field of inter-satellite laser communication, and have entered the stage of large-scale application. The survey finds that the current on-orbit technology verification uses customized laser terminals to meet the specific needs of various tasks. Companies such as Mynaric, Hyperion Tech, Thales Alenia Space, and NICT have begun to launch laser terminal products with higher speed, smaller mass and volume, and lower power consumption. These terminal products can adapt to the universal requirements of similar multi-task. According to the different mission requirements of different orbit heights, this paper summarizes the current development status and plans of laser communication achievements since 2015 (Tab.1). Through the comprehensive survey, this paper reveals the flexibility and modularity trends of laser communication terminals, and four development trends of satellite laser communication: standardization, compatibility, networking, and commercialization. In addition to being used as a carrier for information interaction, laser ranging can obtain more accurate intersatellite ranging values, stronger anti-interference and anti-eavesdropping capabilities compared to traditional RF ranging solutions. The end of this paper surveys on prospects of satellite laser ranging applications, which intends to provide reference to the domestic development and research of laser-based satellite technology. Conclusions and Prospects The laser intersatellite link is developing vigorously. At the same time, the mission requirements of the satellite network are complex and diverse. For satellites of different orbits and mission types, the selection of the communication system, wavelength, and access mode of the laser intersatellite link needs to be analyzed in detail according to each situation. The research aims to provide some reference for the design and optimization of laser inter-satellite links in the future. It is expected that building a standardized, compatible, networked and commercialized laser intersatellite link will help maximize space resources and interconnection of satellite networks. -
表 1 卫星激光通信技术验证现状和计划
Table 1. Current status and plan of laser communication technology validation for medium and high orbit satellites
Orbits Region/
CountryName Launch
timeResearch
instituteLink
formatWavelength/
nmCommunication rate/
bpsModulation mode Middle/High-orbit
laser communicationEurope EDRS-A 2016 ESA GEO-GEO
GEO-LEO1064 1.8 G BPSK
(Duplex)China Shijian-13 2017 China Academy of Space Technology GEO-GND - 5 G IM/DD
(Duplex)Europe CONDOR Mk3 2017 Mynaric 7500 km 1553/1536 10-100 G - Europe EDRS-C 2019 ESA GEO-GEO 1064 1.8 G BPSK
(Duplex)China Shijian-20 2019 China Academy of
Space TechnologyGEO-GND - 10 G QPSK Japan JDRS 2020 JAXA/NICT GEO-LEO 1540/1560 1.8 G/50 M RZ-DPSK
(Downlink)
IM/DD
(Uplink)Europe SmartLCT 2020 TESAT 45000 km 1064 1.8 G - Europe SOT-150 2020 MOSTCOM 50000 km - 1.25 G - Europe LCT135 2021 TESAT 80000 km 1064 1.8 G BPSK Japan HICALI 2021 NICT GEO-GND 1550 1 G DPSK USA LCRD 2021 NASA, MIT GEO-GND
ISS-GEO1550 GEO-GND:
2.88 G/622 M
ISS-GEO:1.244 G/51 MGEO-GND:
DPSK/ PPM
(Duplex)
ISS-GEO:
DPSKEurope EDRS-D 2025 ESA GEO-GEO 1064/1550 3.6-10 G BPSK
(Duplex)Europe HydRON 2025 ESA GEO-LEO
GEO-GND1064/1550 100 G - China Mozi 2016 Shanghai Institute of Optics
and Fine Mechanics, CASLEO-GND - 20 M/5.12 G PPM
(Uplink)
DPSK
(Downlink)China Tiangong-2 2016 China Academy of
Space TechnologyLEO-GND - 1.6 G IM/DD Europe OPTEL-μ 2015 Thales Alenia Space LEO-GND 1550 2 G OOK/PPM Low-orbit laser
communicationUSA OCSD 2015/2017 NASA/US Aerospace LEO-GND 1064 10 k
(Uplink)
5-200 M
(Downlink)OOK/PPM USA CLICK-A 2018 NASA/MIT LEO-GND 1537/1563 20 M PPM
(Downlink)Japan VSOTA 2018 NICT LEO-GND 980/1550 1 k-1 M
(Adjustable)OOK Europe TOSIRIS 2019 TESAT LEO-GND 1550 10/5/2.5/1.25 G
(Downlink, adjustable)
1 M
(Uplink)IM/DD China Xingyun-2 2020 Aerospace Xingyun
Technology Co., Ltd.LEO-LEO
/LEO-GND- 100 M - Europe OSIRSv3/4 2020 DLR LEO-GND 1550 10 G IM/DD
(Downlink)Europe SOT-90 2020 MOSTCOM 5000 km - 10 G - Europe ConLCT 2021 TESAT 8000 km - 10 G
(Duplex)- Europe CubeLCT 2021 TESAT LEO-GND - 100 M
(Downlink)
1 M
(Uplink)IM/DD Europe CubeCat 2021 AAC Clyde Space LEO-GND - 100 M/300 M/1 G
(Downlink, adjustable)
/200 k
(Uplink)- USA TBIRD 2021 NASA/MIT LEO-GND 1550 200 G
(Downlink)
5 kPPM
(Uplink)USA CLICK-B/C 2022 NASA/MIT LEO-LEO/
LEO-GND1537
/1563>20 M PPM USA O2 O 2022 NASA LEO-LEO/
LEO-GND1550 80-250 M
(Downlink)
20 M
(Forward)PPM USA DSOC 2022 NASA LEO-LEO/
LEO-GND1550 - - -
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