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为实现相机红外载荷低温光学系统在轨低温工作温度,如图1所示,在杜瓦窗口帽上安装冷链并与热管连接,热管与辐冷板连接,以实现杜瓦主体200 K低温工作,分置式制冷机与杜瓦耦合,制冷机膨胀机或脉管与杜瓦柱壳法兰面螺栓安装固定,而根据国军标的要求,制冷机脉管散热面或膨胀机散热面的温度要求不低于218 K,同时考虑低温光学杜瓦力学可靠性等方面的要求[6],波纹管的设计指标如表1所示。
表 1 设计指标
Table 1. Design requirements
Items Design requirements (Dewar heat
load 1 W@55 K@195 K)Temperature difference between vessel and window cap ≥18 K Thermal resistance of bellows (77 K) 800 K/W
Random vibration condition20-100 +3 dB/oct
100-600 0.01946 g2/Hz
600-2 000 -9 dB/oct隔热材料的导热系数不大于0.14 W/(m·K),能够阻止热流传递。但此类材料的气密焊接工艺可行性不高[7]。文中的杜瓦窗口帽、引线盘材料选用可伐合金,考虑工艺可焊性,选择不锈钢316L作为波纹管外壳的材料,波纹管采用焊接成型技术,V型波纹管每层壁厚0.1 mm,具体参数如表2所示,不锈钢波纹管和引线盘、柱壳之间通过圆周激光焊成型,波纹管模型如图3所示。
表 2 波纹管设计参数
Table 2. Design parameters of bellows
Items Design parameters Items Design parameters Wall thickness/mm 0.1 Inside Vacuum Material/L 316 Outside Atmosphere Wave pitch/mm 0.85 Stroke/mm 4 Wave number 26 Shaft Ø30 Leak rate (He)/Torr·s−1 <1E-10 Setting direction Vertical Size 0.D.46×I.D.33 Shape V 文中采用导热热阻来表征波纹管的隔热效果,由于波纹管为轴对称结构,通过波数、波距等参数获得热传输链路上有效距离增加,来实现隔离原理。可将波纹管执传导模型简化为轴对称的圆筒薄壁零件热传导,L为热传输的有效长度,其根据波数、波距等参数确定, Ac为等效截面积,可根据壁厚和直径确定,λ为材料的热导率,取其平均值。波纹管的导热热阻Rc可以通过公式(1)计算[8],通过对某长波2 000×12元杜瓦柔性波纹管的热阻计算,其热阻为1831 K/W(77 K)。
$$ {R_c} = \frac{L}{{{A_c} \times \lambda \times \delta }} $$ (1) 式中:L为波纹管两端冷量传递方向的长度;Ac为波纹管等效截面积;λ为材料的热导率;δ为波纹管接触面积修正系数,取值0.95。
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波纹管在压力、轴向力、横向力或弯矩作用下产生位移,其作用力及位移的比值为刚度K。K值越大,柔性越差,波纹管安装过程中可能会产生失稳,而K值越小,柔性越好,其产生的位移补偿越好。波纹管的刚度一般有轴向刚度、旋转刚度和弯曲刚度,其计算的方法有能量法,EJMA标准计算法,经验公式法等[9]。波纹管在不同过程的刚度类型受工装影响较大,但其自身刚度特性主要取决于其几何尺寸,尤其是壁厚,对于内径Φ10~Φ100 mm的波纹管,壁厚与内径的比值一般控制在0.0006~0.05之间,对于文中的波纹管,壁厚与内径比值为0.003,轴向最大位移量为±2 mm,相对于整机要求,已有足够的柔性。杜瓦封装过程中,用专用工装控制波纹管将杜瓦引线盘与柱壳之间实现刚性互联,并将探测器中心引入到窗口帽上,杜瓦封装全过程中工装不拆除,与制冷机、底板安装时,将其基准引入到光机工装上,然后拆除封装用专用工装,以此实现探测器基准的传递。
建立柔性外壳的杜瓦模型及尺寸如图4 所示,将波纹管及其它杜瓦零部件建模简化后导入有限元分析软件,模型中各部件的材料参数如表3所示[6]。
表 3 模型各部分材料及其特性
Table 3. Materials and properties of each part of the model
Name Material Density/kg·m−3 Elastic modulus/GPa Specific heat capacity/J·kg−1·K−1 Cylindrical shell 304 L 8050 200 409 Bellows 316 L 8050 200 409 Enclosure Kavar 8360 142 352 与波纹管相比,杜瓦引线盘及柱壳具有足够的刚度,在相机力学支撑中,杜瓦引线盘及柱壳作为主支撑面,因此在建立力学有限元分析模型中,将引线盘和柱壳作为固定边界,力学分析结果如表4所示,由于波纹管为薄壁零件,波纹管最先起振,根据仿真结果各阶次所对应振型可以看出 1~3阶振动为波纹管本身的振动,振动频率为450.5 Hz,至 4阶振动才是引线盘本身的振动,且频率较高,整机及相机整星力学试验的基频基本小于100 Hz,波纹管不会受到额外的影响[10]。
表 4 模态分析结果
Table 4. Result of modal analysis
Mode Frequency/Hz 1 450.5 2 469.13 3 562.14 4 1381.4 5 1398.8 -
制冷机的脉管或膨胀机为发热源,制冷机工作时,脉管或膨胀机的热量会传递到低温光学杜瓦组件的窗口帽和窗口,这样会引起窗口帽和窗口对冷屏、滤光片支架的辐射热增加,从而导致杜瓦漏热的增加。而杜瓦漏热的增加,制冷机需要进一步增大功耗以提高降温效果,保持探测器工作所需的温度,制冷机功耗增加又会引起脉管或膨胀机的热量增加,从而陷入功耗增加到漏热增加的死循环。故需要对柔性外壳结构的低温光学用杜瓦的漏热进行进一步的分析和设计。
漏热由四部分组成:热传导漏热、辐射漏热、探测器焦耳漏热和对流漏热。将各部份等效为包含自身热参数温度和热容的单个节点。对流漏热由杜瓦的真空度决定的,杜瓦工作时其内部真空度一般也小于1×10−4 Pa,对流漏热非常小,可以忽略不计。根据实际传热路径,采用等效热网络法建立其热分析模型[11]。基于柔性波纹管的低温光学用杜瓦组件的热网络分析模型如图5 所示,仅讨论热传导漏热和辐射漏热两部分内容。
(1)热传导漏热[12]
热传导漏热包括杜瓦芯柱热传导漏热、引线热传导漏热。由于杜瓦芯柱和引线的截面都非常小,而且同为轴对称结构,可将其导热简化为一维稳态热传导模型,一维稳态热传导公式为:
$$ {{Q} _c} = \kappa \frac{A}{\sigma }\Delta {T} $$ (2) 式中:
$ \kappa $ 为材料在$ \Delta {T} $ 温度范围内的平均热导率;A为热传导面积;$ \sigma $ 为热传导的长度;$ \Delta {T} $ 为材料两端的温度差。(2) 辐射漏热[12]
辐射漏热是杜瓦寄生热负载的重要组成部分之一,由于该杜瓦结构比较特殊,芯柱为杜瓦冷头的主支撑体,和制冷机冷指间隙配合,柱壳与制冷机脉管法兰盘通过螺栓刚性连接,柱壳上端为波纹管,波纹管的另外一端为与杜瓦主体连接。芯柱、柱壳、冷头、冷屏、滤光片支架和窗口帽等可以简单地看成同轴的结构,且冷屏已经将冷平台的大部分遮住,为阻止视场外的红外杂散光而在光路中设置的低温冷阑,同时冷屏外表面镜面抛光并镀金,以降低表面发射率,因此辐射漏热主要包括:柱壳内壁对芯柱的辐射、窗口帽内壁对冷屏侧面的辐射、窗口和窗口帽内壁冷屏和滤光片支架上表面的辐射三部分。
任意两个表面之间的辐射热流可以表示为:
$$ {Q_{{\text{{\rm{ij}}}}}} = \dfrac{{{E_{b1}} - {E_{b2}}}}{{\dfrac{{1 - {\varepsilon _1}}}{{{\varepsilon _1}{A_1}}} + \dfrac{1}{{{A_1}{F_{12}}}} + \dfrac{{1 - {\varepsilon _2}}}{{{\varepsilon _2}{A_2}}}}} $$ (3) 式中:Eb为与表面同温度的黑体的发射功率,而且满足Eb=χT4,其中χ为波耳兹曼常数5.67×10−8 W/(m2·K4);T为绝对温度;ε为发射系数;A为表面的面积;F12为表面A1~A2的视觉系数。
综上所述,下面对杜瓦制冷机组件在不同工况下的杜瓦寄生热负载进行归纳如表5所示。
表 5 杜瓦的寄生热负载
Table 5. Thermal loads of Dewar
Cryocooler working condition Temperature of detector/K Solid heat leakage/mW Radiant heat leakage/mW Thermal loads of Dewar/mW Normal temperature condition
(pulse tube @23 °C)60 673 1000 1673 High temperature conditions
(pulse 263 K, window cap 228 K)60 456 306 762 55 471 305 776 Low temperature conditions
(pulse 228 K, window cap 193 K)60 375 169 544 55 387 170 557 50 404 171 575 -
如图6所示,将波纹管胶接在测试杜瓦内的冷平台上,在波纹管的上下两端贴装二极管以测定温度梯度,并在波纹管的上端面贴装加热电阻,并通过合适的低漏热引线引出到测试杜瓦外端,在波纹管的外表面贴装高反射率的多层镀铝聚酯薄膜以降低测试杜瓦窗口帽对波纹管的辐射漏热。整个测试杜瓦内部维持一定的高真空,通过在波纹管上端面的加热电阻施加不同电流以模拟不同负载条件下的温度梯度,进而估算出波纹管的热阻,通过控制冷平台温度为(77±3) K 温度重复三次试验对比,并对热阻结果取平均值后统计如表6所示,结果表明,波纹管顶端加热功率在101 mW时,计算得到的热阻与实测热阻最大误差为37%,引起误差的最主要原因是波纹管内传输一定热流,在波纹管两端产生一定的温度梯度。其体热阻是通过热阻随温度变化的函数,在起始温度和终止温度范围积分后获得,而计算时采用恒定热阻,根据公式(1)可知,在波纹管参数一定的前提下,热阻与材料的热导率λ倒数相关,理论计算时根据 300 K温度范围内的平均热导率,结合温度范围简单差分获得,从而导致理论计算数值差别较大。测试装置本身的热阻主要来自多次装配的接触热阻和辐射热带来的热阻[13],由于试验时控制界面状态和多层包扎的质量,测试装置本身有热阻,但不是主因。
表 6 波纹管的热阻测定
Table 6. Determination of thermal resistance of bellows
Q/W T1/K T2/K ∆T/K Thermal resistance/K·W−1 Theoretical thermal resistance/K·W−1 Deviation 0 74.45 153.5 79.05 0.101 77.6 193 115.4 1142.574 1 831 37% -
采用柔性波纹管外壳结构的杜瓦与制冷机耦合之后形成制冷探测器杜瓦组件,制冷探测器杜瓦组件在低温条件下,柔性波纹管的实际使用需要进一步验证。探测器组件热真空试验如图7所示。组件热量通过冷板、热管将热量带走。制冷机冷指热量通过热管散至组件旁辐射冷板上。在辐射冷板以及制冷机支架上布置补偿加热回路以及测温点,用于组件的控温[14]。另外真空罐内有加热笼,可调节外热流,用于组件温度的调节。
图 7 制冷探测器杜瓦组件低温试验示意图
Figure 7. Schematic diagram of low temperature test of integrated detector Dewar coller assembly
试验结果表明:制冷探测器杜瓦组件低温试验过程中,在高温工况(脉管263 K,窗口帽228 K)工作时,探测器控温为60 K,此时制冷机功耗初期为52.08 Wac,探测器上电后,后期稳定约为69.06 Wac,冷头的热负载施加了600 mW左右的焦耳热,制冷机相同工况下增加了16.98 Wac功耗,其波纹管冷端和热端的温度梯度范围为37.22~39.11 K。后续探测器控温在55 K时,此时制冷机功耗初期为61.6 Wac,探测器上电后,后期稳定约为89.1 Wac,冷头的热负载施加了600 mW左右的焦耳热,制冷机相同工况下增加了27.5 Wac功耗,其波纹管冷端和热端的温度梯度范围为39.59~40.93 K。
在低温工况(脉管228 K,窗口帽193 K)工作时,探测器控温60 K时,此时制冷机功耗初期为46.84 Wac,探测器上电后,后期稳定约为60.77 Wac,冷头的热负载施加了600 mW左右的焦耳热,制冷机相同工况下增加了13.93 Wac功耗,其波纹管冷端和热端的温度梯度范围为37.64~46.17 K。对比常温工况时,杜瓦漏热估算1673 mW,在低温工况工作时,杜瓦漏热仅为544 mW,仅为常温工况杜瓦漏热的32%。低温工况下探测器上电的功耗为60.77 Wac,相对于高温工况下69.06 Wac@60 K有所减小,但减小量不大。同样,低温工况下探测器不上电的制冷机功耗46.84 Wac相对于高温工况下52.08 Wac@60 K均有所减小,但减小量不大,由此可判断制冷机不同工况(263 K和228 K)、窗口帽不同温度(228 K和193 K)下制冷机热负载变化不大;探测器控温在55 K时,此时制冷机功耗初期56.52 Wac,探测器上电后,后期稳定约为72.74 Wac,冷头的热负载施加了600 mW左右的焦耳热,制冷机相同工况下增加了16.22 Wac功耗,其波纹管冷端和热端的温度梯度范围为48.06~48.91 K,基本变化不大;后续探测器控温在50 K时,此时制冷机功耗初期65.72 Wac,探测器上电后,后期稳定约为94.94 Wac,冷头的热负载施加了600 mW左右的焦耳热,制冷机相同工况下增加了29.22 Wac功耗,其波纹管冷端和热端的温度梯度范围为46.63~48.28 K,基本变化不大。
综上,通过对波纹管热端和冷端温度的监测,波纹管在制冷机不同工况下的温度梯度最小为37.22 K,随着窗口帽温度的降低,当达到热平衡状态时,波纹管的温度梯度逐渐增大,最大可为48.96 K。另外,根据表7热真空试验中实测的各温度点可以表征出杜瓦的温度场,以此作为输入条件代入低温光学用杜瓦组件的漏热的设计模型(图5),可以计算出不同工况下杜瓦的热负载。制冷机提供的冷量(即杜瓦冷端的总负载)用于抵消探测器焦耳热和杜瓦的热负载。对表7中所列探测器温度、杜瓦冷端的总负载和制冷机输入功耗等图形化汇总后形成如图8所示,当窗口帽为200 K和探测器工作为50 K时,探测器未上电时,制冷机的制冷能力为65.72 Wac@575 mW,当探测器上电后,探测器的焦耳热施加到杜瓦冷头上,并反馈到制冷机上,制冷机需要进一步增大功耗以提高降温效果,保持探测器工作所需的温度,制冷机功耗增加又会引起脉管或膨胀机的热量增加,与探测器未上电时比较,窗口帽、波纹管冷端、波纹管热端的温度基本无变化,可以认为制冷机的功耗的增加基本为探测器功耗增加引起的,低温光学用杜瓦组件的柔性波纹管的隔热性在工程中得到进一步验证。
表 7 制冷探测器杜瓦组件低温试验数据
Table 7. Low temperature test data of integrated detector dewarcoller assembly
Cryocooler working
conditionTemperature of
detector/KDewar leakage heat/mW Detector power
consumption
/mWTotal load/mW Temperature of
window cap/KTemperature
of Hot end
bellows/KTemperature of Cold end
bellows/KCooler power
consumption/WacInsulation effect
of bellows/KNormal temperature condition
(Pulse tube @296 K)60 1673 0 1673 296 296 296 99 High temperature conditions
(pulse 263 K,
window cap 228 K)60 762 0 762 229.84 267.71 230.49 52.08 37.22 60 762 600 1362 225.5 265.81 226.7 69.06 39.11 55 776 600 1376 223.21 263.94 224.35 89.1 39.59 55 776 0 776 221.88 263.4 222.47 61.6 40.93 Low temperature conditions
(pulse 228 K,
window cap 193 K)60 544 0 544 214.56 253.16 215.52 46.84 37.64 60 544 600 1144 194.08 241.87 195.7 60.77 46.17 55 557 600 1157 193.27 243.52 194.61 72.74 48.91 55 557 0 557 192.83 242.31 194.25 56.52 48.06 50 575 0 575 192.43 241.04 194.41 65.72 46.63 50 575 600 1175 192.1 241.48 193.2 94.94 48.28 -
为了验证柔性波纹管外壳结构的可靠性,需要对低温光学用制冷探测器杜瓦组件进行相应量级的力学考核,力学量级为20~100 Hz (+3 dB/oct),100~600 Hz(0.01946 g2/Hz),600~2 000 Hz (−9 dB/oct)。并对力学前后的制冷探测器杜瓦组件的热力特性进行验证[15],试验流程如图9所示。试验前后制冷机功耗、波纹管两端温度梯度等数据如表8所示,试验发现制冷机功耗、波纹管两端温度梯度等测试结果均变化不大,且符合设计指标要求和项目要求, 因而可以判定所设计的波纹管及低温光学用柔性外壳杜瓦通过力学振动试验[16]。
图 9 大组件正弦、随机振动试验流程图
Figure 9. Flow chart of sinusoidal and random vibration test of integrated detector dewarcoller assembly
表 8 力学前后数据对比
Table 8. Comparison of data before and after mechanical test
Refrigerator working condition Temperature of detector/K Before mechanical test After mechanical test Cooler power consumption/Wac Insulation effect of bellows/K Cooler power consumption/Wac Insulation effect of bellows/K High temperature conditions (pulse 263 K, window cap 228 K) 60 52.08 37.22 52.11 37.33 60 69.06 39.11 69.61 39.42 55 89.1 39.59 88.92 39.83 55 61.6 40.93 61.48 41.09 Low temperature conditions (pulse 228 K, window cap 193 K) 60 46.84 37.64 47.07 37.87 60 60.77 46.17 60.59 46.49 55 72.74 48.91 72.66 49.15 55 56.52 48.06 56.80 48.01 50 65.72 46.63 65.59 47.10 50 94.94 48.28 94.66 48.57
Study on thermal characteristics of Dewar flexible shell structure for cryogenic optics
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摘要: 为了满足低温光学系统低背景、低功耗和红外探测器制冷组件高环境适应性的要求,提出了探测器制冷组件杜瓦主体(窗口、窗口帽和引线盘) 200 K低温保持,与制冷机膨胀机或脉管散热面柔性绝热连接的设计思想。针对低温光学用杜瓦柔性外壳工程应用中的特点,文中以某低温光学用长波12.5 μm 2 000元红外探测器杜瓦组件以例,提出了波纹管作为绝热连接的柔性外壳,重点阐述杜瓦柔性波纹管隔热、力学和相关漏热的设计,并开展不同热负载条件下波纹管热特性验证,可实现最小温度梯度为37.22 K,绝热热阻为1142 K/W,误差在37%。为综合评价低温光学用柔性外壳结构杜瓦组件的性能,对某低温光学用长波12.5 μm 2 000元探测器柔性外壳杜瓦组件开展热真空和鉴定级的力学试验考核验证,试验结果表明实现了200 K低温窗口,探测器60 K工作,杜瓦漏热为544 mW,低温工况工作时相对于常温工况制冷机的功耗下降了53%,并通过了4 g的随机力学考核,验证了低温光学用杜瓦柔性波纹管外壳模型合理可行,对于后续低温光学用杜瓦柔性外壳结构工程应用提供了重要参考。Abstract: In order to meet the requirements of low background, low power consumption of low temperature optical system and high environmental adaptability of infrared detector refrigeration components, the design idea of the Dewar main body (window, window cap and enclosure) maintaining low temperature and flexible adiabatic connection with the cooling surface of the cryocooler expander is proposed. Aiming at the characteristics of the engineering application of the Dewar flexible shell for cryogenic optics, this paper takes a Dewar component of a long-wavelength 12.5 μm 2 000 element infrared detector for cryogenic optics as an example. This paper proposes a bellows as a flexible shell for adiabatic connection. The design of thermal insulation, mechanics and associated heat leakage of Dewar flexible bellows is highlighted. The thermal characteristics of bellows under different thermal load conditions are verified, and the minimum temperature gradient is 37.22 K, the adiabatic thermal resistance is 1142 K/W, and the error is 37%. In order to comprehensively evaluate the performance of the flexible shell structure, the thermal vacuum and qualification-level mechanical tests are carried out for a long-wavelength 12.5 μm 2 000 element detector flexible shell Dewar component for cryogenic optics. The test results show that when the low temperature window works at 200 K, the detector works at 60 K, the heat leakage of the Dewar is 544 mW. Compared with the normal temperature condition, the power consumption of the cryocooler is reduced by 53% when working in low temperature condition,, and the 4 g random mechanical test is passed, which verifies the low temperature optics. It is reasonable and feasible to use the Dewar flexible bellows shell model, which provides an important reference for the subsequent structural engineering application of the Dewar flexible shell for cryogenic optics.
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Key words:
- bellows /
- Dewar /
- cryogenic optics /
- heat insulation /
- thermal properties
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表 1 设计指标
Table 1. Design requirements
Items Design requirements (Dewar heat
load 1 W@55 K@195 K)Temperature difference between vessel and window cap ≥18 K Thermal resistance of bellows (77 K) 800 K/W
Random vibration condition20-100 +3 dB/oct
100-600 0.01946 g2/Hz
600-2 000 -9 dB/oct表 2 波纹管设计参数
Table 2. Design parameters of bellows
Items Design parameters Items Design parameters Wall thickness/mm 0.1 Inside Vacuum Material/L 316 Outside Atmosphere Wave pitch/mm 0.85 Stroke/mm 4 Wave number 26 Shaft Ø30 Leak rate (He)/Torr·s−1 <1E-10 Setting direction Vertical Size 0.D.46×I.D.33 Shape V 表 3 模型各部分材料及其特性
Table 3. Materials and properties of each part of the model
Name Material Density/kg·m−3 Elastic modulus/GPa Specific heat capacity/J·kg−1·K−1 Cylindrical shell 304 L 8050 200 409 Bellows 316 L 8050 200 409 Enclosure Kavar 8360 142 352 表 4 模态分析结果
Table 4. Result of modal analysis
Mode Frequency/Hz 1 450.5 2 469.13 3 562.14 4 1381.4 5 1398.8 表 5 杜瓦的寄生热负载
Table 5. Thermal loads of Dewar
Cryocooler working condition Temperature of detector/K Solid heat leakage/mW Radiant heat leakage/mW Thermal loads of Dewar/mW Normal temperature condition
(pulse tube @23 °C)60 673 1000 1673 High temperature conditions
(pulse 263 K, window cap 228 K)60 456 306 762 55 471 305 776 Low temperature conditions
(pulse 228 K, window cap 193 K)60 375 169 544 55 387 170 557 50 404 171 575 表 6 波纹管的热阻测定
Table 6. Determination of thermal resistance of bellows
Q/W T1/K T2/K ∆T/K Thermal resistance/K·W−1 Theoretical thermal resistance/K·W−1 Deviation 0 74.45 153.5 79.05 0.101 77.6 193 115.4 1142.574 1 831 37% 表 7 制冷探测器杜瓦组件低温试验数据
Table 7. Low temperature test data of integrated detector dewarcoller assembly
Cryocooler working
conditionTemperature of
detector/KDewar leakage heat/mW Detector power
consumption
/mWTotal load/mW Temperature of
window cap/KTemperature
of Hot end
bellows/KTemperature of Cold end
bellows/KCooler power
consumption/WacInsulation effect
of bellows/KNormal temperature condition
(Pulse tube @296 K)60 1673 0 1673 296 296 296 99 High temperature conditions
(pulse 263 K,
window cap 228 K)60 762 0 762 229.84 267.71 230.49 52.08 37.22 60 762 600 1362 225.5 265.81 226.7 69.06 39.11 55 776 600 1376 223.21 263.94 224.35 89.1 39.59 55 776 0 776 221.88 263.4 222.47 61.6 40.93 Low temperature conditions
(pulse 228 K,
window cap 193 K)60 544 0 544 214.56 253.16 215.52 46.84 37.64 60 544 600 1144 194.08 241.87 195.7 60.77 46.17 55 557 600 1157 193.27 243.52 194.61 72.74 48.91 55 557 0 557 192.83 242.31 194.25 56.52 48.06 50 575 0 575 192.43 241.04 194.41 65.72 46.63 50 575 600 1175 192.1 241.48 193.2 94.94 48.28 表 8 力学前后数据对比
Table 8. Comparison of data before and after mechanical test
Refrigerator working condition Temperature of detector/K Before mechanical test After mechanical test Cooler power consumption/Wac Insulation effect of bellows/K Cooler power consumption/Wac Insulation effect of bellows/K High temperature conditions (pulse 263 K, window cap 228 K) 60 52.08 37.22 52.11 37.33 60 69.06 39.11 69.61 39.42 55 89.1 39.59 88.92 39.83 55 61.6 40.93 61.48 41.09 Low temperature conditions (pulse 228 K, window cap 193 K) 60 46.84 37.64 47.07 37.87 60 60.77 46.17 60.59 46.49 55 72.74 48.91 72.66 49.15 55 56.52 48.06 56.80 48.01 50 65.72 46.63 65.59 47.10 50 94.94 48.28 94.66 48.57 -
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